El papel de la nutrición en la génesis del cáncer de mama / Nutrition in breast cancer genesis

El cáncer de mama es el tumor más prevalente en las mujeres y ocupa el primer lugar en incidencia y en mortalidad en muchos países. Si bien las causas del cáncer de mama son complejas y multifactoriales, los factores nutricionales y aquellos relacionados con el estado nutricional juegan un papel importante en el desarrollo de la enfermedad. De esta forma, se han identificado algunos factores que aumentan su riesgo, como el aumento de peso, la cantidad de tejido adiposo, la circunferencia de cintura, el consumo de alcohol, etc., o bien, que lo reducen, como el consumo de frutas y verduras. Los factores nutricionales o que dependen del estado de nutrición son modificables y prevenibles, por lo que deben tenerse en cuenta al diseñar programas de prevención eficaces. (AU)

Breast cancer is the most prevalent tumor in women, ranking first in incidence and mortality in many countries. Although the causes of breast cancer are complex and multifactorial, nutritional factors and those related to nutritional status play an important role in the development of the disease. In this way, factors that increase breast cancer risk have been identified, such as weight gain, the amount of adipose tissue, waist circumference, alcohol consumption or the consumption of red meat and processed meat, while other factors have been identified that reduce the risk, such as eating fruits and vegetables. Nutritional factors or factors that depend on the state of nutrition are modifiable and preventable, so they must be considered when designing effective prevention programs. (AU)

Risk of coronary stenosis after adjuvant radiotherapy for breast cancer.

PURPOSE: Adjuvant radiotherapy (RT) for breast cancer is associated with an increased risk of ischemic heart disease. We examined the risk of coronary artery stenosis in a large cohort of women with breast cancer receiving adjuvant RT. METHODS: A cohort of women diagnosed with breast cancer between 1992 and 2012 in three Swedish health care regions (n = 57,066) were linked to the Swedish Coronary Angiography and Angioplasty Registry (SCAAR) to identify women receiving RT who subsequently underwent a percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) due to coronary stenosis. Cox regression analyses were performed to examine risk of a coronary intervention and competing risk analyses were performed to calculate cumulative incidence. RESULTS: A total of 649 women with left-sided breast cancer and 494 women with right-sided breast cancer underwent a PCI. Women who received left-sided RT had a significantly higher risk of a PCI in the left anterior descending artery (LAD) compared to women who received right-sided RT, hazard ratio (HR) 1.44 (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.21-1.77, p < 0.001). For the proximal, mid, and distal LAD, the HRs were 1.60 (95% CI 1.22-2.10), 1.38 (95% CI 1.07-1.78), and 2.43 (95% CI 1.33-4.41), respectively. The cumulative incidence of coronary events at 25 years from breast cancer diagnosis were 7.0% in women receiving left-sided RT and 4.4% in women receiving right-sided RT. CONCLUSION: Implementing and further developing techniques that lower cardiac doses is important in order to reduce the risk of long-term side effects of adjuvant RT for breast cancer.

Angiosarcoma associated with radiation therapy after treatment of breast cancer. Retrospective study on ten years.

PURPOSE: The breast sarcoma induced by radiation therapy is rare but increasing, given the increased long-term survival of patients receiving radiation therapy. Fibrosarcoma, histiocytofibroma and angiosarcoma are the most common breast sarcoma. Angiosarcoma is the most common after breast cancer treated by radiation therapy, often diagnosed too late, with a severe prognosis and a high rate of recurrence. However, because of the low incidence of angiosarcoma associated with radiation therapy (AAR), the benefit of radiation therapy in breast cancer treatment outweighs the risk to develop angiosarcoma. The aim of this study is to evaluate these rare cases of AAR diagnosed in eastern Belgium in comparison to the data from the literature. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Nine cases of AAR after radiation for breast ductal carcinoma were included in this retrospective study. AAR was diagnosed according to Cahan criteria between January 2007 and December 2016. Latency, incidence, management and prognosis are comparable to the literature. RESULTS, CONCLUSION: The median latency was 10 (4-24) years, the incidence of AAR in the East Belgian area was 0.09% of the patients irradiated on the same period. Patients were treated by surgery with wide local excision with or without reconstructive surgery, without radiotherapy and chemotherapy treatment. Kaplan-Meier analysis showed median overall survival of 61.8 months, patient survival of 55.6% at one year and 29.6% at five years. With the constant progress of medicine and its technologies, it would be possible to limit the occurrence of AAR or to diagnose it at an earlier stage.

Bilateral immediate two-stage breast reconstruction in patients with unilateral breast cancer: Outcomes analysis and risk assessment.

INTRODUCTION: Contralateral prophylactic mastectomy has the potential to decrease the occurrence of cancer and reduce psychological burden. However, it is known that complications after bilateral mastectomy are higher compared with unilateral mastectomy. Our goal was to evaluate outcomes of immediate breast reconstruction in patients undergoing bilateral mastectomy and to compare complication rates between therapeutic and prophylactic sides. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Electronic medical records of patients with unilateral breast cancer who underwent bilateral mastectomy and immediate reconstruction with expanders were reviewed. Postoperative complications were compared between therapeutic and prophylactic mastectomy sides. RESULTS: Sixty-two patients were analyzed. The overall complication rate after both stages was 23.9% on the therapeutic side and 16.5% on the prophylactic side. Infection was the most common complication on both sides. All infections on the prophylactic mastectomy side were successfully treated with intravenous (IV) antibiotics (salvage rate of 100%), whereas 35.7% of infected tissue expander/implants on the therapeutic mastectomy side were explanted despite treatment. CONCLUSION: Careful counselling of patients undergoing elective contralateral prophylactic mastectomy is essential as complications can develop in either breast after reconstruction.

Second primary breast cancer after unilateral mastectomy alone or with contralateral prophylactic mastectomy.

BACKGROUND: An increasing number of patients undergo contralateral prophylactic mastectomy (CPM) for unilateral breast cancer. However, the benefit of CPM has not been quantified in the setting of contemporary breast cancer therapy. METHODS: We performed an analysis of 180 068 patients in the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) database, diagnosed with unilateral ductal breast carcinoma between 1998 and 2013 and treated with unilateral mastectomy (UM) or CPM. UM was performed in 146 213 patients (81.2%); CPM was performed in 33 855 patients (19.8%). Primary outcome of interest was cumulative incidence of a second primary breast cancer in the ipsilateral or contralateral breast greater than 3 months after initial diagnosis. Cumulative incidence analysis was based on a Cox proportional model to generate curves of second primary breast cancer in any breast, ipsilateral breast only, or contralateral breast only. RESULTS: Patients who underwent CPM had a significantly reduced incidence of second primary breast cancer 10 and 15 years after surgery (CPM 0.93% [0.73%, 1.12%] vs UM 4.44% [4.28%, 4.60%]). Patients who underwent CPM had significantly lower adjusted hazard of second primary breast cancer when compared with UM (HR 0.38 vs 1.0, P < .0001). CONCLUSIONS: CPM offers some protection from a second primary breast cancer, attributable to a reduced incidence in the contralateral breast. These findings provide additional information to providers and patients as they make decisions regarding surgical management. They should also be interpreted in the context of the absolute incidence of second primary breast cancer after UM and previous literature demonstrating no survival benefit.

Cardiac mortality after radiotherapy, chemotherapy and endocrine therapy for breast cancer: Cohort study of 2 million women from 57 cancer registries in 22 countries.

Comparisons of patients receiving different cancer treatments reflect the effects of both treatment and patient selection. In breast cancer, however, if radiotherapy decisions are unrelated to laterality, comparisons of left-sided and right-sided cancers can demonstrate the causal effects of higher-versus-lower cardiac radiation dose. Cardiac mortality was analysed using individual patient data for 1,934,248 women with breast cancer in 22 countries. The median date of diagnosis was 1996 and the interquartile range was 1987-2002. A total of 1,018,505 women were recorded as irradiated, 223,077 as receiving chemotherapy, 317,619 as receiving endocrine therapy and 55,264 died of cardiac disease. Analyses were stratified by time since breast cancer diagnosis, age at diagnosis, calendar year of diagnosis and country. Patient-selection effects were evident for all three treatments. For radiotherapy, there was also evidence of selection according to laterality in women irradiated 1990 or later. In patients irradiated before 1990, there was no such selection and cardiac mortality was higher in left-sided than right-sided cancer (rate ratio [RR]: 1.13, 95% confidence interval 1.09-1.17). Left-versus-right cardiac mortality RRs were greater among younger women (1.46, 1.19, 1.20, 1.09 and 1.08 after cancer diagnoses at ages <40, 40-49, 50-59, 60-69 and 70+ years, 2ptrend =0.003). Left-versus-right RRs also increased with time since cancer diagnosis (1.03, 1.11, 1.19 and 1.21 during 0-4, 5-14, 15-24 and 25+ years, 2ptrend =0.002) while for women who also received chemotherapy, the left-versus-right RR was 1.42 (95% confidence interval 1.13-1.77), compared to 1.10 (1.05-1.16) for women who did not (2pdifference = 0.03). These results show that the relative increase in cardiac mortality from cardiac exposure during breast cancer radiotherapy given in the past was greater in younger women, lasted into the third decade after exposure and was greater when chemotherapy was also given.

Laterality of breast cancer at Dr George Mukhari Academic Hospital.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this descriptive study was to determine and compare the incidence of left-sided and rightsided breast cancer at Dr George Mukhari Academic Hospital from January 2000 to June 2016. It aimed to determine if there was a significant variation in laterality of breast cancer at our institution. METHOD: A retrospective study. Medical records of breast cancer (BC) patients who were newly diagnosed from January 2000 to June 2016 were reviewed. Emphasis was on biopsy results (histology and/or cytology) and/or history of chemotherapy, and breast cancer laterality. RESULTS: Out of 1482 patients, 1427 had unilateral BC and 55 (3.7%) bilateral cancer. A total of 789 (55.3%) patients had left-sided breast cancer (LSBC) and 638 (44.7%) had right BC. Left BC was 10.6% more common than right BC with a left to right laterality ratio (LRR) of 1.24. There was a statistically significant relationship between laterality and stage (p = 0.050), with the right breast having more advanced stage cancers (88.7%) compared to the left breast (85%). There was no statistically significant difference between age, site and histological type of BC and laterality (p = 0.740, p = 0.052, p = 0.394 respectively). CONCLUSION: Left to right BC excess does exist in patients that were newly diagnosed at Dr George Mukhari Academic Hospital, South Africa, from January 2000 to June 2016.

The use of contralateral prophylactic mastectomy among elderly patients in the United States.

PURPOSE: Previous studies have reported increased rates of contralateral prophylactic mastectomy (CPM) in the United States among women with unilateral breast cancer. These trends have primarily focused on younger breast cancer patients. Given the growing aging population in the United States, we sought to determine whether CPM use is also increasing in elderly patients. METHODS: This population-based study identified patients in the surveillance epidemiology and end results (SEER) data. We determined the rate of CPM as a proportion of all surgically treated patients and as a proportion of all mastectomies. We compared the unadjusted CPM rates over the study period using the Cochrane-Armitage test for trend. We used a logistic regression model to test for the factors associated with CPM utilization. RESULTS: We identified 261,281 patients ≥ 65 years who underwent surgical treatment for breast cancer. For all patients treated with surgery for invasive breast cancer, the use of CPM increased from 1 in 2004 to 3% in 2014 (200% increase). Among mastectomy patients, the use of CPM increased from 3 in 2004 to 7% in 2014 (133% increase). Young age, non-Hispanic white race, lobular histology, higher grade, increased stage, negative lymph node status, and recent year of diagnosis were significantly associated with increased CPM rates. CONCLUSIONS: For elderly patients the use of CPM has continued to increase in the United States. These observations warrant concern in light of increasing evidence that CPM does not improve oncological outcomes and is associated with increased morbidity in older patients.

Contralateral prophylactic mastectomy rate and predictive factors among patients with breast cancer who underwent multigene panel testing for hereditary cancer.

Although multigene panel testing is increasingly common in patients with cancer, the relationship between its use among breast cancer patients with non-BRCA mutations or variants of uncertain significance (VUS) and disease management decisions has not been well described. This study evaluated the rate and predictive factors of CPM patients who underwent multigene panel testing. Three hundred and fourteen patients with breast cancer who underwent multigene panel testing between 2014 and 2017 were included in the analysis. Of the 314 patients, 70 elected CPM. Election of CPM by gene status was as follows: BRCA carriers (42.3%), non-BRCA carriers (30.1%), and VUS (10.6%). CPM election rates did not differ between non-BRCA carriers and BRCA carriers (P = 0.6205). Among non-BRCA carriers, negative hormone receptor status was associated with CPM (P = 0.0115). For those with a VUS, hormone receptor status was not associated with CPM (P = 0.1879). Although the rate of CPM between BRCA carriers and non-BRCA carriers was not significantly different, the predictors of CPM were different in each group. Our analyses shed the light on the increasing use of CPM among patients who are non-BRCA carriers as well those with a VUS. Our study elucidates the differing predictive factors of CPM election among BRCA carriers, non-BRCA carries, and those with a VUS. Our findings reveal the need for providers to be cognizant that non-BRCA genes and VUS drive women to elect CPM despite the lack of data for contralateral breast cancer risk associated with these genes.

Prevalence of pathogenic BRCA1/2 germline mutations among 802 women with unilateral triple-negative breast cancer without family cancer history.

BACKGROUND: There is no international consensus up to which age women with a diagnosis of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) and no family history of breast or ovarian cancer should be offered genetic testing for germline BRCA1 and BRCA2 (gBRCA) mutations. Here, we explored the association of age at TNBC diagnosis with the prevalence of pathogenic gBRCA mutations in this patient group. METHODS: The study comprised 802 women (median age 40 years, range 19-76) with oestrogen receptor, progesterone receptor, and human epidermal growth factor receptor type 2 negative breast cancers, who had no relatives with breast or ovarian cancer. All women were tested for pathogenic gBRCA mutations. Logistic regression analysis was used to explore the association between age at TNBC diagnosis and the presence of a pathogenic gBRCA mutation. RESULTS: A total of 127 women with TNBC (15.8%) were gBRCA mutation carriers (BRCA1: n = 118, 14.7%; BRCA2: n = 9, 1.1%). The mutation prevalence was 32.9% in the age group 20-29 years compared to 6.9% in the age group 60-69 years. Logistic regression analysis revealed a significant increase of mutation frequency with decreasing age at diagnosis (odds ratio 1.87 per 10 year decrease, 95%CI 1.50-2.32, p < 0.001). gBRCA mutation risk was predicted to be > 10% for women diagnosed below approximately 50 years. CONCLUSIONS: Based on the general understanding that a heterozygous mutation probability of 10% or greater justifies gBRCA mutation screening, women with TNBC diagnosed before the age of 50 years and no familial history of breast and ovarian cancer should be tested for gBRCA mutations. In Germany, this would concern approximately 880 women with newly diagnosed TNBC per year, of whom approximately 150 are expected to be identified as carriers of a pathogenic gBRCA mutation.

Incidence and tumour characteristics of bilateral and unilateral interval breast cancers at screening mammography.

BACKGROUND: Detected by screening mammography, bilateral breast cancer has a different pathological profile compared to unilateral breast cancer. We investigated the incidence of bilateral interval breast cancers and compared their characteristics with those of unilateral interval breast cancers. METHODS: We included all 468,720 screening mammograms of women who underwent biennial screening mammography in the South of the Netherlands between January 2005 and January 2015. We collected breast imaging reports, biopsy results and surgical reports of all referred women and of all women who presented with interval breast cancer. The tumour with the highest tumour stage (index cancer) was used for comparison with unilateral interval cancers. RESULTS: A total of 753 interval cancers were detected, of which 24 (3.2%) were bilateral. Among the invasive interval cancers, bilateral cancers more frequently showed a lobular histology than unilateral cancers (37.5% (9/24) vs. 16.1% (111/691), P = .01). There is a trend towards a larger proportion of bilateral than unilateral interval cancers graded 1 (45.8% (11/24) vs. 27.8% (192/691), P = .08). There were no other statistically significant differences in tumour characteristics. Also, the proportion of interval cancers showing significant mammographic abnormalities at the latest screen was comparable for unilateral and bilateral interval cancers (23.0% vs. 25.0%, P = .9). DISCUSSION: Bilateral interval cancers comprise a small proportion of all interval cancers. Except of a higher proportion of invasive lobular cancers and a more favourable histological grade of invasive cancers, tumour characteristics are comparable for bilateral and unilateral interval breast cancers.

Predictors associated with MRI surveillance screening in women with a personal history of unilateral breast cancer but without a genetic predisposition for future contralateral breast cancer.

PURPOSE: For women with a personal history of breast cancer (PHBC), no validated mechanisms exist to calculate future contralateral breast cancer (CBC) risk. The Manchester risk stratification guidelines were developed to evaluate CBC risk in women with a PHBC, primarily for surgical decision making. This tool may be informative for the use of MRI screening, as CBC risk is an assumed consideration for high-risk surveillance. METHODS: Three hundred twenty-two women with a PHBC were treated with unilateral surgery within our multidisciplinary breast clinic. We calculated lifetime CBC risk using the Manchester tool, which incorporates age at diagnosis, family history, genetic mutation status, estrogen receptor positivity, and endocrine therapy use. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses (UVA/MVA) were performed, evaluating whether CBC risk predicted MRI surveillance. RESULTS: For women with invasive disease undergoing MRI surveillance, 66% had low, 23% above-average, and 11% moderate/high risk for CBC. On MVA, previous mammography-occult breast cancer [odds ratio (OR) 18.95, p < 0.0001], endocrine therapy use (OR 3.89, p = 0.009), dense breast tissue (OR 3.69, p = 0.0007), mastectomy versus lumpectomy (OR 3.12, p = 0.0041), and CBC risk (OR 3.17 for every 10% increase, p = 0.0002) were associated with MRI surveillance. No pathologic factors increasing ipsilateral breast cancer recurrence were significant on MVA. CONCLUSIONS: Although CBC risk predicted MRI surveillance, 89% with invasive disease undergoing MRI had <20% calculated CBC risk. Concerns related to future breast cancer detectability (dense breasts and/or previous mammography-occult disease) predominate decision making. Pathologic factors important for determining ipsilateral recurrence risk, aside from age, were not associated with MRI surveillance.

The financial impact and drivers of hospital charges in contralateral prophylactic mastectomy and reconstruction: a Nationwide Inpatient Sample hospital analysis.

PURPOSE: Rates of contralateral prophylactic mastectomy (CPM) have increased over the last decade; it is important for surgeons and hospital systems to understand the economic drivers of increased costs in these patients. This study aims to identify factors affecting charges in those undergoing CPM and reconstruction. METHODS: Analysis of the Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project National Inpatient Sample was undertaken (2009-2012), identifying women aged ≥18 with unilateral breast cancer undergoing unilateral mastectomy with CPM and immediate breast reconstruction (IBR) (CPM group), in addition to unilateral mastectomy and IBR alone (UM group). Generalized linear modeling with gamma regression and a log-link function provided mean marginal hospital charge (MMHC) estimates associated with the presence or absence of patient, hospital and operative characteristics, postoperative complications, and length of stay (LOS). RESULTS: Overall, 70,695 women underwent mastectomy and reconstruction for unilateral breast cancer; 36,691 (51.9%) in the CPM group, incurring additional MMHCs of $20,775 compared to those in the UM group (p < 0.001). In the CPM group, MMHCs were reduced in those aged >60 years (p < 0.001), while African American or Hispanic origin increased MMHCs (p < 0.001). Diabetes, depression, and obesity increased MMHCs (p < 0.001). MMHCs increased with larger (p < 0.001) hospitals, Western location (p < 0.001), greater household income (p < 0.001), complications (p < 0.001), and increasing LOS (p < 0.001). MMHCs decreased in urban teaching hospitals and Midwest or Southern regions (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: There are many patient and hospital factors affecting charges; this study provides surgeons and hospital systems with transparent, quantitative charge data in patients undergoing contralateral prophylactic mastectomy and immediate breast reconstruction.

Incidental unilateral and bilateral ductal carcinoma in situ encountered in the surgical management of young male gynecomastia.

BACKGROUND: The increased risk for malignant tumors associated with male gynecomastia has been well established and many authors have reported cases of concurrent gynecomastia and ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) in the same breast. Synchronous bilateral breast cancer in association with gynecomastia is exceptionally rare. We aim to report and evaluate the management outcome of 5 cases of gynecomastia associated with DCIS (1 bilateral and 4 unilateral). METHODS: A retrospective database analysis of the surgical treatment outcome of 74 male patients who had gynecomastia was done. A bilateral subcutaneous nipple-preserving mastectomy approach was done to all. Histopathology reports were reviewed. RESULTS: 74 patients diagnosed and treated for gynecomastia were included. The incidence rate of gynecomastia in our hospital male patients was 0.17%. The mean age was 22 years, range 17-29 years. Five (6.76%) patients were found in histopathology specimens to have DCIS, 1 patient (23 years old) had bilateral DCIS of low grade, 4 patients had unilateral positive involvement, 3 had right breast DCIS, and 1 had left breast DCIS, and all were of low-grade papillary subtype. The incidence of ductal carcinoma in situ among our series gynecomastia patients was 6.76%. CONCLUSION: We conclude that gynecomastia is a benign breast disease but recent reports had described malignant variants, mostly DCIS, including 5 young males in our series. Therefore, regardless of the age group, histopathological examination of the resected gynecomastia tissue should be carefully done in all patients. Further evidence-based studies are needed to investigate the optimum management of incidental DCIS in gynecomastia specimens.

Bilateral breast cancer, synchronous and metachronous; differences and outcome.

The aims of this study were twofold: to analyze the incidence of patients having synchronous or metachronous bilateral invasive breast cancer (SBBC and MBBC) and to assess the characteristics and outcome compared to those having unilateral breast cancer (UBC). The used data were obtained from our prospective population-based cohort study which had been started in 1983. Bilateral breast cancer (BBC) was categorized as SBBC (≤3 months of the first primary) or MBBC (>3 months after the first primary). The incidence of SBBC was 1% and that of MBBC 7.0 %. Patients with UBC showed more ductal carcinoma compared to patients with BBC. MBBC status was an independent significant predictor of local failure (HR 1.9; 95% CI 1.3-2.7). SBBC status was an independent predictor of distant metastases (HR 2.6; 95% CI 1.4-4.5). Overall survival (OS) was better for MBBC (HR 0.6; 95% CI 0.4-0.8) and worse for SBBC (HR 2.3; 95% CI 1.5-3.6) compared to UBC. We noted: (1) MBBC showed a significant higher local failure compared to UBC, (2) SBBC, compared to MBBC and UBC had a significant higher distant metastases rate, (3) disease-specific survival and OS were significantly worse for SBBC compared to UBC and MBBC, and (4) that the OS for MBBC compared to UBC, was significantly better.

Benefits and risks of contralateral prophylactic mastectomy in women undergoing treatment for sporadic unilateral breast cancer: a decision analysis.

The rate of contralateral prophylactic mastectomy (CPM) is rising rapidly, despite limited evidence about the procedure's relative benefits and harms. The objective of this study is to examine the impact of CPM on life expectancy (LE) and quality-adjusted life expectancy (QALE) in women with sporadic unilateral breast cancer. A Markov model was developed to compare 18 hypothetical cohorts of 45-year-old women with newly diagnosed unilateral, sporadic breast cancer treated with or without CPM. The probability of developing distant metastases by American Joint Committee on Cancer stage and molecular subtype was derived from British Columbia Cancer Agency data. Additional model parameters were identified from the medical literature. Sensitivity analyses were performed to examine the impact of plausible variations in key model parameters on results. CPM improved LE in all cohorts (range 0.06-0.54 years). Stage had more effect on LE than subtype (stage I mean, 0.44 years, stage III mean, 0.11 years). However, after adjusting for quality-of-life, No CPM was favored in all cohorts. Univariate sensitivity analysis demonstrated that the most influential model parameter was the post-CPM health state utility. The preferred strategy shifted from No CPM to CPM when the post-CPM utility exceeded 0.83 (base case value 0.81). PSA indicated that LE gains and QALE decreases were stable in all cohorts. The primary determinant of survival after unilateral breast cancer is stage at diagnosis. Our results suggest that routine CPM would not improve quality-adjusted survival for the majority of women with unilateral sporadic breast cancer.